Foods, Materials, Technologies and Risks

E. Sedaghati, H Hokmabadi, in Encyclopedia of Food Safety, 2014

The Risk of Soybean Transgenic Plant

Transgenic crops are spreading more rapidly than any other agricultural technology in history, suggesting that farmers perceive important advantages in growing them. Developing countries now account for 38% of global transgenic crop area despite continuing controversy surrounding them. The most extensive ex post studies of transgenic crop adoption in developing countries have been conducted for insect-resistant (IR) cotton in Argentina, China, India, Mexico, and South Africa. Transgenic herbicide-tolerant (HT) soybeans are being grown in Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and elsewhere, but Argentina is the only developing country for which peer-reviewed studies have been published. Some developing countries also produce HT and/or IR maize, but the only peer-reviewed ex post analyses of their impacts published so far are for Argentina and South Africa.

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Application of Plant Biotechnology

Saurabh Bhatia, in Modern Applications of Plant Biotechnology in Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2015

5.3.1.8 High Yielding GM Crops

High yielding GM crops are those crops that give better yield than the already existing variety. These types of crops have high commercial value and hence are commercialized according to the needs of the market. But it is a myth among cultivars and consumers that GM crops are known to be high yielding crops, because until now no GM crop has shown better yield results. Yet in the case of the most widely grown GM crop, GM soybeans, there has been evidence of consistently lower yields for over a decade. Controlled comparative field trials of GM/non-GM Soya suggest that 50% of the drop in yield may be due to the genetic disruption caused by the GM transformation process [81,82]. A US Department of Agriculture report confirms the questionable yield performance of GM crops, stating that “GE crops available for commercial use do not increase the yield potential of a variety. In fact, yield may even decrease…. Perhaps the biggest issue raised by these results is how to explain the rapid adoption of GE crops when farm financial impacts appear to be mixed or even negative.”

On the contrary, Monsanto reports estimated that approximately 95% of the soybeans and 75% of corn in the United States are GM. More than 95% of soybeans in Argentina and half the soybeans grown in Brazil are GM. In 2009, Monsanto released a line of soybeans in the United States that has been shown in field trials to increase yields by 7–11% (http://www.monsanto.com/newsviews/Pages/do-gm-crops-increase-yield.aspx). Monsanto claims related to the increase yield of GM (RR2) soybeans were proven false in 2010, during which period West Virginia had launched a probe into Monsanto for consumer fraud for false advertising claims. Thus, there are two critical issues (speculation that supports and opposes GM crops and their related technologies), though no strong evidence has been found yet that favors either side.

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Redesigning Rice Photosynthesis to Increase Yield

P.L. Mitchell, J.E. Sheehy, in Studies in Plant Science, 2000

Potential benefits of genetically modified (GM) crops include improved food quality such as vitamin or mineral contents, improved crop physiology for higher yields or growth in harsh environments, herbicide resistance to allow better weed control with broad-spectrum herbicides, and pest resistance. Genetic engineering in rice is illustrated by case studies on the dwarfing gene and basmati rice, and on the possibility of producing a rice plant with C4 photosynthesis. We conclude that the potential benefits of GM crops, especially to poor farmers in developing countries, justify investment in genetic engineering research, which must include full risk assessment. Risk assessments of GM crops must be based on scientific research because science offers objectivity even if not certainty. There is a need for fair comparisons with conventional crops in the context of the farming system. We discuss the public concerns about GM crops in terms of the safety of food, effects on the environment, and the promotion of GM crops by multinational companies that control the technologies or the crops.

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ETHICS AND BIOSAFETY | Ethics of Genetically Modified Crops

R. Straughan, in Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences, 2003

Introduction

Genetically modified (GM) crops have become the subject of heated controversy and media attention. This is partly because they raise not only scientific and technological issues but also what are often referred to as moral and ethical ones, about which it seems difficult to reach any substantial degree of consensus. These concerns, to take a few common examples, may arise from unease that the technology interferes with the workings of Nature and Creation, that it involves irresponsible risk-taking for commercial profit, or that it exploits and harms vulnerable individuals and communities. Such concerns are of importance for a variety of reasons, not least because many studies have shown them to be significant in shaping public perceptions of the technology and attitudes towards it. The exact nature of these concerns, however, is often far from clear, and the purpose of this article is to outline the role of ethics in discussions of GM crops and to examine the main issues at stake.

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Safety assessment of food derived from genetically modified crops

Premendra D. Dwivedi, ... Alok Kumar Verma, in Animal Biotechnology (Second Edition), 2020

History and methods

Introduction

Genetically modified (GM) crops are needed to meet the requirement of ever-growing world population. Billions of people worldwide are unable to meet their daily micro-nutritional requirement, and there is need to increase food production by 70% by the year 2050. With the continued increase in population, the major challenge is how to manage the food for everyone. To some extent, GM foods may fulfill this requirement (Delaney, 2015). By the use of latest molecular biology techniques, desirable traits in plants can be introduced by artificial insertion of gene from unrelated species or sometimes from an entirely different kingdom. Development of GM crops began in the late 1980s with the advancement in the biotechnology technique for directly altering the DNA of the genome and rearrangement of DNA by using methods such as electroporation’ or infection with recombinant vectors (e.g., Agrobacterium tumefaciens). These GM crops have new trait(s) introduced in it as compared to native crop (e.g., insects resistance, herbicides and disease resistance, drought tolerance, or improved nutritional content). Conventional plant breeding methods were time-consuming and imprecise. However, the desired trait can be inserted into a plant with higher accuracy using genetic engineering methods (e.g., insertion of Bt gene in corn, which offers insect resistance). This gene, isolated from a bacterium, named Bacillus thuringiensis, produces a protein that can kill the insect larvae. The first GM crops, tomato and soybean, were evaluated for risk assessment and approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA). It should be ensured that GM foods are safe before their release into the market. There is a chance that an inserted gene may result in the translation of protein that has the ability to provoke an allergenic response that can sensitize the consumers. Furthermore, it is also possible that inserted gene may elicit allergenic potential by cross-reactivity in an already sensitized population. To save sensitive consumers from unwanted exposure to allergens, appropriate preventive measures should be taken. Humans are exposed to a variety of allergens present in the environment and food. Pollens, fungi, insects, and a variety of food products of animal or plant origin may be harmful to the exposed sensitized group. It is often believed that GM crop/foods may cause additional problems if effective measures are not taken. Also, people should be aware of the ill effects of allergens as no effective medical treatments are currently available for treating this health concern. Therefore, it is essential to assess the allergenic potential of GM crops and food prior to commercialization.

The 20th anniversary (1996–2015) of the commercialization of GM crops concluded recently. Accumulated hectare utilized for irrigation of the GM crops in this time duration exceeded two billion hectares, which is equivalent to twice the total land mass of China or the United States, clearly signifying that biotech crops are putting their roots strongly. The two billion accumulated hectares comprise 1.0 billion hectares of biotech soybean, 0.6 billion hectares of biotech maize, 0.3 billion hectares of biotech cotton, and 0.1 billion hectares of biotech canola. Up to ~18 million farmers benefit from biotech crops in the past 20-year period (1996–2015) and ~90% were small resource-poor farmers. In 2011, commercially cultivated GM crops were Alfalfa (Medicago sativa), Argentine Canola (Brassica napus), Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus), Chicory (Cichorium intybus), Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), Creeping Bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera), Flax or Linseed (Linumusitatissumum L.), Maize (Zea mays L.), Melon (Cucumismelo), Papaya (Carica papaya), Petunia (Petunia), Plum (Prunus domestica), Polish canola (Brassica rapa), Poplar (Populus nigra), Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), Rice (Oryza sativa L.), Rose (Rosa hybrida), Soybean (Glycine max L.), Squash (Cucurbita pepo), Sugar beet (Beta vulgaris), Sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum), Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.), Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), and Wheat (Triticum aestivum). About 45 countries including Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Czech Republic, Egypt, Arab Republic, El Salvador, Germany, Honduras, India, Iran, Islamic Republic, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, Myanmar, Netherlands, New Zealand, Pakistan, Paraguay, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russian Federation, Singapore, Slovak Republic, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United States of America, and Uruguay are taking their step ahead for the development of various GM crops. In a landmark development, India ranked first in cotton production in the world with 11.6 million hectares planted by 7.7 million small farmers. (source: http://www.isaaa.org/gmapprovaldatabase/default.asp). Herbicide and drought tolerance, insect resistance, improved nutritional characteristics of foods or feeds and altered fatty acid profiles are major choice of developers in the most GM crops, nowadays.

The first international and national provisions for the safety assessment and regulation of GM crop- derived foods were started by Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, 1986) and the first regulatory approval of a GM crop had come after approximately one decade (in 1995). In 1996, the International Food Biotechnology Council (IFBC) and the International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI) jointly developed a decision-tree approach (Metcalfe et al., 1996) that is widely accepted by regulatory authorities all over the world. In GM foods, the inserted proteins are needed to be assessed before their insertion and it is very important to ensure that the products of novel genes introduced into GM crop are not harmful. It is also important to ensure that the process of transformation does not cause any unintended change in the characteristics and levels of expression of endogenous allergenic proteins. The safety assessment focuses on the new gene products and whole foods derived from the GM crop. Both intended and potential unintended effects of the genetic modification should be taken into account. The assessment of GM crops involves the steps like characterization of the parent crop, characterization of the donor organisms from which any recombinant DNA sequences are derived, the transformation process and the introduced recombinant DNA sequences, safety assessment of the introduced gene products (proteins as well as metabolites), and food safety assessment of whole food derived from edible part. Earlier, GM brinjal in India was suspended (for an indefinite time period) prior to its intended release due to safety-related issues (Kumar et al., 2011a,b). But recently, issue related to GM crops is gaining attention in India (Padmanaban, 2014; Warrier and Pande, 2016).

During the safety assessment of GM foods, allergenicity is one of the most important issues. Food allergy is an increasing global health concern. It is an immune provocation in susceptible individuals, triggered by certain food proteins, including proteins derived from GM foods. Sensitization develops when a susceptible individual is exposed to an amount of protein sufficient to induce an immune response. Subsequent exposure to the same or similar allergenic protein in sensitized individuals can provoke an adverse reaction. Allergic reactions may be mild and local, but sometimes can be severe, systemic, and fatal. Severe allergic reactions with a rapid onset of symptoms are known as anaphylaxis reactions. The susceptibility of any individual is dependent on several factors, including genetic predisposition and environmental factors.

In food, every protein may not be responsible for provoking immunological reactions but certain proteins that can induce allergic complications are known as allergens. Every allergen is an antigen, but not every antigen is an allergen. In an allergenic protein, certain regions have immune reactive capacity; these regions are known as epitopes. It has been reported that certain biochemical characteristics are shared by many (but not necessarily all) food allergens; one such characteristic is the relative stability and resistant to the denaturation of proteins. Pepsin resistance is thought to be an important property of allergens because when any portion of the protein that remains intact, the chance of an immune response is higher. In the United States, each year about 30,000 people come to hospital emergency departments due to food-induced anaphylaxis, and nearly 200 people die (Sampson, 2003). The recent study in US children population demonstrates the increasing trend in the incidence of food-induced anaphylaxis. Peanuts followed by tree nuts/seeds are implicated as the major contributing factor in this increase (Motosue et al., 2018). In the United Kingdom, millions of people suffer from food-induced allergic reactions. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations and World Health Organization (WHO) expert consultation committee on allergenicity of foods derived from biotechnology documented an approach for assessing the allergenic potential of novel proteins in transgenic crops (Codex Alimentarius, 2003).

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ETHICS AND BIOSAFETY | Plant Genetic Engineering, Ecological Issues

J.M. Dunwell, in Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences, 2003

Introduction

Transgenic crops are now grown on more than 40 million ha in 13 countries throughout the world. This article will consider various ecological aspects related particularly to the cultivation of transgenic herbicide and insect-resistant crops. This will include the significance of gene transfer to related plants or to microbes, the effect of insect-resistant plants on nontarget organisms, and the possibility of other inadvertent effects of the transgenic plant on the environment. It will concentrate on recently published data and reviews, and the reader is referred to “Further Reading” for further information.

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FLOWERING AND REPRODUCTION | Pollination

J.L. Osborne, J.B. Free, in Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences, 2003

Genetically Modified Crops

The release of genetically modified (GM) crops into the environment has raised concerns about the movement of transgenes, via cross-pollination, into other crops or wild relatives in the vicinity, producing offspring containing the genetic modification. This highlights the need to further quantify mechanisms of pollen flow if appropriate isolation distances are to be recommended.

If GM crops are male fertile, it is not possible to ensure that no pollen will travel from these crops to others, whatever the isolation distances. It is more important to understand whether the incorporation of the genes into conventional crops or wild relatives presents any environmental or health risk, and whether the GM crops themselves have the potential to harm pollinators. The evidence so far suggests that, even for GM crops with insecticidal properties, the risks to bees are extremely low.

Assuming genetic incorporation into other plants via pollination is “safe” at an acceptable level, then a more productive approach to planting GM crops would be to accept a certain limit on contamination from GM crops, based on extensive knowledge and guidelines gained from plant breeding and the production of high-purity seed, and recommend isolation distances for organic crops accordingly.

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Green Biotechnology

Reinhard Renneberg, in Biotechnology for Beginners (Third Edition), 2023

Traits

About three-quarters of all genetically modified plants grown globally have a newly introduced characteristic that makes them resistant to certain herbicides. This makes the battle against weeds easier and more effective. The new herbicide-tolerant soy cultivars make it possible to use more soil-protective no-till cultivation methods.

Other commercially successful types of GM plants can defend themselves against pests with the help of a gene from a soil bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis. The gene produces a protein known as Bt toxin, which kills certain noxious insects. The use of chemical pesticides can thus be reduced or dispensed with altogether. The damage caused by the targeted insects is also significantly reduced. Genetically engineered insect resistance is a widely used trait in corn and cotton.

Almost one-third (28%) of all GM crops sown in 2014 have combined herbicide tolerance and insect resistance (stacked genes).

The first GM crops are now available that ensure higher yields than conventional cultivars under drought conditions. The first drought-resistant GM corn (Drought Gard) was planted in the United States in 2013. In 2014, the cultivated area expanded from 50,000 to 275,000 hectares. Drought-resistant GM sugar beets are now being grown in Indonesia.

In Brazil, a GM pinto bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) that is resistant to golden mosaic virus, one of the major bean pests in South America, was licensed. The new bean was developed in the state-owned agricultural research institute, Embrapa. The seeds became available in the 2014/2015 growing season. Beans are a staple food in Brazil and are mainly grown by small farmers. Virus infestations not only destroy their harvest, but the soil—several hundred thousand hectares—can no longer be used for growing beans. The new virus-resistant bean is the first genetically modified crop that was developed using public funding and without the support of multinational companies.

Meanwhile, genetically modified crops have been licensed in the United States, with special benefits for consumers—such as soybeans with a higher proportion of omega-3 fatty-acids, apples that do not turn brown once they have been cut in half, and potatoes that develop less acrylamide when heated and deep-fried. New, more accurate genetic engineering methods were used for the development of apples and potatoes. These involved switching off existing genes in the plants instead of inserting genes from other organisms. Soybeans with a modified fatty acid composition have been available since 2011. Potatoes were market-ready by 2015 and apples were ready by 2016.

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Plant Genetic Engineering Towards the Third Millennium

C. James, in Developments in Plant Genetics and Breeding, 2000

Distribution by Crop and Trait

The five principal transgenic crops grown in 1998 (Table 3) were, in descending order of area, soybean, com/maize, cotton, canola/rapeseed, and potato. Transgenic soybean and com continued to be ranked first and second in 1998, accounting for 52 % and 30 % of global transgenic area, respectively. Cotton and canola shared third ranking position in 1998 each occupying 9 % of global area.

Table 3. Global area of transgenic crops in 1997 & 1998: By crop (millions of hectares).

Crop1997%1998%Increase (Ratio)
Soybean5.14614.5529.4(2.9)
Corn3.2308.3305.1(2.6)
Cotton1.4132.591.1(1.8)
Canola1.2112.491.2(2.0)
Potato< 0.1< 1< 0.1< 1< 0.1(-.-)
Total11.010027.810016.8(2.5)

Source: Clive James, 1998.

The relative ranking of the principal transgenic traits were the same in 1997 and 1998 (Table 4), with herbicide tolerance being by far the highest, increasing from 63 % in 1997 to 71 % in 1998. Insect resistant crops decreased from 36 % in 1997 to 28 % in 1998. Stacked genes for insect resistance and herbicide tolerance increased from < 0.1 % in 1997 (< 0.1 million hectares) to 1 % or 0.3 million hectares in 1998 with quality traits occupying less than 1 % and < 0.1 million hectares in both 1997 and 1998.

Table 4. Global area of transgenic crops in 1997 &amp; 1998: By trait (millions of hectares).

Trait1997%1998%Increase (Ratio)
Herbicide tolerance6.96319.87112.9(2.9)
Insect resistance4.0367.7283.7 (1.9)
Insect res. &amp; Herbicide tolerance&lt; 0.1&lt; 10.310.2 (-.-)
Quality Traits&lt; 0.1&lt; 1&lt; 0.1&lt; 1&lt; 0.1 (-.-)
Global Totals11.010027.810016.8(2.5)

Source: Clive James, 1998.

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Transgenic, cisgenic and novel plant products

Palmiro Poltronieri, Ida Barbara Reca, in Applied Plant Genomics and Biotechnology, 2015

1.1 Genetically modified plant products in the United States

The growing area of genetically modified (GM) crops has substantially expanded since they were first commercialized in 1996. Correspondingly, the adoption of GM crops has brought huge economic and environmental benefits (processed proteins and carbohydrates, soy sauce, proteins for feeds). All these achievements have been primarily supported by two simple traits of herbicide tolerance and insect resistance in the past years (Chen and Lin, 2013). The populations of at least nine pest species have evolved resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxins in the field. It has been reported that widespread control failures of Bt cotton associated with pink bollworm (Pectinophora gossypiella) resistance to Cry1Ac have happened in the state of Gujarat in western India. Moreover, the wide adoption of HR crops in the United States also appeared to accelerate the evolution of resistance weeds to glyphosate compared with areas not growing GM crops (Tabashnik et al., 2012; Carriere et al., 2010; Dhurua and Gujar, 2011). Twenty-four glyphosate-resistant weed species have been identified since Roundup-tolerant crops were introduced in 1996. However, studies on Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri) showed that the plant can easily grow in transgenic cotton fields since 2008. Palmer amaranth is a weed especially in the south-eastern United States. It outcompetes cotton for moisture, light and soil nutrients and can quickly take over fields. Farmers had historically used multiple herbicides, which slowed the development of resistance, and controlled weeds through ploughing and tilling, practices that deplete topsoil and release carbon dioxide but do not encourage resistance. Monsanto has changed its recommendations on glyphosate use, so that farmers change and use a mix of chemical products and ploughing.

For GM plants (GMPs), it takes almost 6 years and US$ 35 million to generate the data for a regulatory dossier, limiting the use of this technology to the major agrobiotechnology companies and to high-value crops and traits (Podevin et al., 2013).

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