Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Preventing Parent-Child Separation: Myths and Facts from a KAP Survey in Central and Western Liberia

  • Published:
Global Social Welfare Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The 14-year civil conflict in Liberia resulted in the separation of many children from their families. A population-based, multi-stage random cluster knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) survey of 1157 child caregivers was conducted in 12 districts in Liberia. Knowledge of alternative care and adoption is low and varies significantly by residence. Common misunderstandings include thinking that biological parents may migrate in cases of inter-country adoption (42% of rural and Greater Monrovia (GM); p = 0.2138), and that there is a legal obligation to place children in institutions whenever they cannot be cared for by their parents (42% urban, 35% rural; p = 0.0009). Willingness is high to foster children across all settings; and to send children to live with relatives, non-relatives, or in orphanages, particularly in rural areas (p < 0.0001). Willingness to foster children with special needs is higher in GM (p < 0.0001). Access to schooling is the main reason children are separated from their parents. Relocating with spouse is common in GM (p = 0.0540) and to assist relatives or friends in rural and urban areas (p = 0.5047). Financial need drives child separation, mostly in GM (p = 0.0723). Regulatory measures and public education campaigns must be developed and evaluated overtime with due consideration of residence.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abebe, T., & Aase, A. (2007). Children, AIDS and the politics of orphan care in Ethiopia: the extended family revisited. Social Science & Medicine, 64(10), 2058–2069.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adewunmi, A. A., Etti, E. A., et al. (2012). Factors associated with acceptability of child adoption as a management option for infertility among women in a developing country. International journal of women’s health, 4, 365–372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Akers, A. Y., Muhammad, M. R., et al. (2011). “When you got nothing to do, you do somebody”: a community’s perceptions of neighborhood effects on adolescent sexual behaviors. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 72(1), 91–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alber, E., Martin, J., et al. (2013). Child fostering in West Africa: new perspectives on theory and practices. Leiden: Brill.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Amon, J., Brown, T., et al. (2000). Behavioral surveillance surveys. Guidelines for repeated behavioral surveys in populations at risk of HIV. Arlington: Family Health Internationa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ansell, N., & Young, L. (2004). Enabling households to support successful migration of AIDS orphans in southern Africa. AIDS Care, 16(1), 3–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Better Care Network Secretariat. (2009). Global facts about orphanages from http://handstohearts.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Global-Fact-Sheet-on-Orphanages_BetterCareNetwork.pdf.

  • Bokaie, M., Farajkhoda, T., et al. (2012). Barriers of child adoption in infertile couples: Iranian’s views. Iranian Journal of Reproductive Medicine, 10(5), 429–434.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brody, G. H., Stoneman, Z., et al. (1987). Child temperaments, maternal differential behavior, and sibling relationships. Developmental Psychology, 23(3), 354–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. (2013). Morals and maladies: Life histories of socially distributed care among Aaumbo women in Namibia, Southern Africa. Journal of Critical Southern Studies, 1(1), 60–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buhi, E. R., & Goodson, P. (2007). Predictors of adolescent sexual behavior and intention: a theory-guided systematic review. Journal of Adolescent Health, 40(1), 4–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Case, A., Paxson, C., et al. (2004). Orphans in Africa: parental death, poverty, and school enrollment. Demography, 41(3), 483–508.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • CIA. (2015). Liberia. The World Factbook. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coldwell, J., Pike, A., et al. (2008). Maternal differential treatment and child adjustment: a multi-informant approach. Social Development, 17(3), 596–612.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Donovan, R. J., Jalleh, G., et al. (2009). Ethical issues in pro-social advertising: the Australian 2006 White Ribbon Day campaign. Journal of Public Affairs, 9(1), 5–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dozier, M., Zeanah, C. H., et al. (2012). Institutional care for young children: review of literature and policy implications. Social issues and policy review, 6(1), 1–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eke, C., Obu, H., et al. (2014). Perception of child adoption among parents/care-givers of children attending pediatric outpatients’ clinics in Enugu, South East, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Clinical Practice, 17(2), 188–195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Executive Mansion (2015). President Sirleaf lifts moratorium on child adoptions in Liberia from http://www.emansion.gov.lr/2press.php?news_id=3336&related=7&pg=sp.

  • Government of Liberia. (2011). An act to establish the children's law of Liberia, 2011. Monrovia, Liberia: Republic of Liberia.

  • Goldberg, R., & Short, S. (2012). “The luggage that isn’t theirs is too heavy…”: understandings of orphan disadvantage in Lesotho. Population Research and Policy Review, 31(1), 67–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goyette-Ewing, M. (2000). Children’s after school arrangements: a study of self-care and developmental outcomes. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 20(1/2), 55–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horsfall, B., Bromfield, L., et al. (2010). Are social marketing campaigns effective in preventing child abuse and neglect? Melbourne: National Child Protection Clearinghouse, Australian Institute of Family Studies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jeannin, R., & Van Leeuwen, K. (2015). Associations between direct and indirect perceptions of parental differential treatment and child socio-emotional adaptation. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(6), 1838–1855.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jeannin, R., Hannes, K., et al. (2012). Unravelling children’s perceptions of parental differential treatment. Psychology Research, 2, 99–117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ji, K., Finkelhor, D., et al. (2013). Child sexual abuse in China: a meta-analysis of 27 studies. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37(9), 613–622.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, K., Asher, J., et al. (2008). Association of combatant status and sexual violence with health and mental health outcomes in postconflict Liberia. JAMA, 300(6), 676–690.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kamali, A., Seeley, J. A., et al. (1996). The orphan problem: experience of a sub-Saharan Africa rural population in the AIDS epidemic. AIDS Care, 8(5), 509–516.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Karimli, L., Ssewamala, F. M., et al. (2012). Extended families and perceived caregiver support to AIDS orphans in Rakai district of Uganda. Children and Youth Services Review, 34(7), 1351–1358.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khalifa, B., & Nasser, R. (2015). Parental styles and closeness to the domestic servant as perceived by the children of Qatar. The Journal of Developing Areas, 49(6), 497–504.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kish, L. (1949). A procedure for objective respondent selection within the household. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 44(247), 380–387.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kowal, A. K., Krull, J. L., et al. (2004). How the differential treatment of siblings is linked with parent-child relationship quality. Journal of Family Psychology, 18(4), 658–665.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kruk, M. E., Rockers, P. C., et al. (2010). Availability of essential health services in post-conflict Liberia. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 88, 527–534.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuyini, A. B., Alhassan, A. R., et al. (2009). Traditional kinship foster care in northern Ghana: the experiences and views of children, carers and adults in Tamale. Child & Family Social Work, 14(4), 440–449.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lawler, J. M., & Gunnar, M. R. (2012). Implications of research of postinstitutionalized children for practice and policy in early education. In R. C. Pianta, W. S. Barnett, & L. M. Justice (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood education (pp. 457–479). New York: Guildford Press.

  • Lawrence, C. (2010). Expanding protection to enhance opportunities for development of girls and boys in River Gee and Grand Kru counties of Liberia. Monrovia: Save the Children.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leiden Conference. (2012). The development and care of institutionally reared children: the Leiden Conference on the development and care of children without permanent parents. Child Development Perspectives, 6, 174–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LISGIS. (2009). 2008 National population and housing census. Final results. Monrovia: Liberia Institute of Statistics and Geo-Information Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • LISGIS, MOHSW, et al. (2008). Liberia demographic and health survey 2007. Monrovia: Liberia Institute of Statistics and Geo-Information Services and Macro International Inc..

    Google Scholar 

  • Mace, S. E. (2016). Global threats to child safety. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 63(1), 19–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madhavan, S. (2004). Fosterage patterns in the age of AIDS: continuity and change. Social Science & Medicine, 58(7), 1443–1454.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malinga-Musamba, T. (2015). The nature of relationships between orphans and their kinship carers in Botswana. Child & Family Social Work, 20(3), 257–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masmas, T. N., Jensen, H., et al. (2004). The social situation of motherless children in rural and urban areas of Guinea-Bissau. Social Science & Medicine, 59(6), 1231–1239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McHale, S. M., Updegraff, K. A., et al. (2005). Siblings’ differential treatment in Mexican American families. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67(5), 1259–1274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Mel, S., Elder, S., et al. (2013). Labour market transitions of young women and men in Liberia. Geneva: International Labour Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • MOHSW. (2011). Liberia national social welfare policy. Monrovia: Ministry of Health and Social Welfare.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morantz, G., Cole, D., et al. (2013a). Child abuse and neglect among orphaned children and youth living in extended families in sub-Saharan Africa: what have we learned from qualitative inquiry? Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies, 8(4), 338–352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morantz, G., Cole, D. C., et al. (2013b). Maltreatment experiences and associated factors prior to admission to residential care: a sample of institutionalized children and youth in western Kenya. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37(10), 778–787.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morrongiello, B. A., Zdzieborski, D., et al. (2012). Supervision of children in agricultural settings: implications for injury risk and prevention. Journal of Agromedicine, 17(2), 149–162.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Omosun, A. O., & Kofoworola O. (2011). Knowledge, attitude and practice towards child adoption amongst women attending infertility clinics in Lagos State, Nigeria.

  • Parwon, S. (2006). Orphanage Assessment Report, consultant was hired by UNICEF and seconded to Liberia Ministry of health and social welfare.

  • R Core Team (2015). R: a language and environment for statistical computing. URL http://www.R-project.org/. Vienna, Austria, R Foundation for Statistical Computing.

  • Rather, Y. (2011). P01-337-The children living in orphanages in Kashmir: an exploration of their nurture, nature and needs. European Psychiatry, 26(Supplement 1), 339.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rauer, A. J., & Volling, B. L. (2007). Differential parenting and sibling jealousy: developmental correlates of young adults’ romantic relationships. Personal Relationships, 14(4), 495–511.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Republic of Liberia. (2009). Preliminary findings and determinations (Vol. 1). Monrovia: Truth and Reconciliation Commission, Republic of Liberia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richmond, M. K., Stocker, C. M., et al. (2005). Longitudinal associations between sibling relationship quality, parental differential treatment, and children’s adjustment. Journal of Family Psychology, 19(4), 550–559.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roby, J. L., Shaw, S. A., et al. (2014). Perceived food and labor equity and school attendance among Ugandan children living in kin care. International Journal of Social Welfare, 23(2), 205–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruiz-Casares, M. (2009). Between adversity and agency: child and youth-headed households in Namibia. Vulnerable Children & Youth Studies, 4(3), 238–248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwebel, D. C., & Gaines, J. (2007). Pediatric unintentional injury: behavioral risk factors and implications for prevention. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 28(3), 245–254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shanahan, L., McHale, S. M., et al. (2008). Linkages between parents’ differential treatment, youth depressive symptoms, and sibling relationships. Journal of Marriage and Family, 70(2), 480–494.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smithgall, C., Yang, D.-H., et al. (2013). Unmet mental health service needs in kinship care: the importance of assessing and supporting caregivers. Journal of Family Social Work, 16(5), 463–479.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sobkoviak, R. M., Yount, K. M., et al. (2012). Domestic violence and child nutrition in Liberia. Social Science & Medicine, 74(2), 103–111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solmeyer, A. R., & McHale, S. M. (2015). Parents’ differential treatment of adolescent siblings in African American families. Family Process, 56(1), 171–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stark, L., Rubenstein, B. L., et al. (2016). Estimating child separation in emergencies: results from North Kivu. Child Abuse & Neglect, 52, 38–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tanga, P. T. (2013). The impact of the declining extended family support system on the education of orphans in Lesotho. African Journal of AIDS Research, 12(3), 173–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tefera, B. (2015). The situation of street children in selected cities of South Sudan: magnitude, causes, and effects. Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review, 31(1), 63–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ugochukwu, E. F., Okeke, K. N., et al. (2012). Socio-demographic characteristics of child street vendors in Nnewi, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Pediatrics, 39(4).

  • UN (2007). UN report calls for action to help Liberian children living in orphanages from http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=22051&Cr=liberia&Cr1=.

  • UNDP. (2006). National Human Development Report. Liberia 2006. Monrovia: Republic of Liberia and United Nations Development Programme.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • UNDP. (2015). Human development report 2015: work for human development. New York: United Nations Development Programme.

    Google Scholar 

  • UNGA. (1989). Convention on the Rights of the Child, 44/25. New York: United Nations General Assembly.

    Google Scholar 

  • UNGA. (2006). Report of the independent expert for the United Nations study on violence against children. New York: United Nations General Assembly A/61/299.

    Google Scholar 

  • UNGA. (2009). Guidelines for the alternative care of children. A/RES/64/142. New York: United Nations General Assembly.

    Google Scholar 

  • USDS. (2015). Liberia 2015 human rights report. 2015 country reports on human rights practices. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of State.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vinck, P., & Pham, P. N. (2013). Association of exposure to intimate-partner physical violence and potentially traumatic war-related events with mental health in Liberia. Social Science & Medicine, 77, 41–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walker, S. P., Wachs, T. D., et al. (2011). Inequality in early childhood: risk and protective factors for early child development. The Lancet, 378(9799), 1325–1338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • WHO. (1991). Facilitator guide for the EPI coverage survey: expanded program on immunization. Geneva: World Health Organization WHO/EPI/MLM/91.11.

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO. (2008). Advocacy, communication and social mobilization for TB control: a guide to developing knowledge, attitude and practice survey. Geneva: World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • Widom, C. S., & Hiller-Sturmhofel, S. (2001). Alcohol abuse as a risk factor for and consequence of child abuse. Alcohol Research & Health, 25(1), 52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilton Park Conference (2009). The neglected agenda: protecting children without adequate parental care, Save the Children, UNICEF, and Better Care Network.

Download references

Acknowledgements

Deep gratitude to all caregivers and community members who participated in the study as well as to the research team for their hard work. Members of the Advisory Committee and Sarah Lilley from Save the Children-UK provided valuable insights throughout the study. Thank you to Sepideh Farsinezhad for her contribution to weight calculation.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mónica Ruiz-Casares.

Ethics declarations

Funding

This study was funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID)/Displaced Children and Orphans Fund (DCOF) and Save the Children. The contents do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government.

Conflict of Interest

Ruiz-Casares received consultation fees and Bangura and Oyat received employment salary from USAID/Save the Children.

Additional information

Research Highlights

• Access to schooling is the main reason children are separated from their parents.

• Knowledge of alternative care is low in Central and Western Liberia, particularly in rural areas.

• Common misunderstandings about residential care and parents’ rights and responsibilities in cases of adoption may contribute to unnecessary parent-child separation.

• There is widespread support for child fostering across residence areas.

• Willingness to foster children with special needs is significantly higher in Greater Monrovia.

Electronic Supplementary Material

Online Resource 1

(DOCX 32 kb)

Online Resource 2

(DOCX 58 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Ruiz-Casares, M., Steele, R., Bangura, R. et al. Preventing Parent-Child Separation: Myths and Facts from a KAP Survey in Central and Western Liberia. Glob Soc Welf 4, 219–231 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40609-017-0090-8

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40609-017-0090-8

Keywords

Navigation